From Marabi to Digital: The Role of Music in Shaping South Africa’s Urban and Industrial Landscape

 

written by idkblanco | 11 minute read

South Africa’s musical evolution is inextricably linked to its urban growth and shifting industrial landscape. Over the past century, the nation’s music has not only reflected the social and political challenges of its time but has also contributed to urban regeneration and economic transformation. From the forced removals under apartheid that reshaped the cultural hubs of Sophiatown and District Six to the post-apartheid music industry’s expansion into global markets, music has been both a reflection of and a catalyst for urban change. This article traces the role of music in South African urban development, with a particular focus on industrial infrastructure, networks, government policies, and the cultural movements that have shaped the industry.

Early Encounters and the Foundations of a Hybrid Culture

In the colonial era, South African urban centres such as Cape Town became the meeting places of indigenous musical traditions and European influences. As Christopher Ballantine (1989: 306) observes, “the early intermingling of cultures laid the groundwork for a distinctly South African sound.” While formal industrial infrastructure was minimal at the time, these early urban centres set the stage for later economic and cultural transformations by absorbing and adapting external musical influences.

The 1920s–1950s: Industrialisation and the Rise of Marabi

The discovery of gold and diamonds in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries spurred rapid urban migration and industrial growth, particularly in Johannesburg. In this context, around the 1920s and 1930s marabi music emerged organically among mining communities and in the backrooms of illegal shebeens. Ballantine (1989: 307) writes that marabi was “the heartbeat of Johannesburg’s mining communities”, serving as a form of cultural expression and social cohesion amid the harsh conditions of industrial labour.

This era witnessed the first attempts at recording and broadcasting local music. Although early recording infrastructures were undeveloped and often controlled by white-owned enterprises, they began to capture and disseminate indigenous musical forms. These early efforts laid the foundation for what would later become a robust music industry, closely tied to the nation’s expanding industrial infrastructure.

The 1960s–1980s: Political Repression and Cultural Resistance

A decade marked by the intensification of apartheid programs, policies such as the Group Areas Act, displaced thriving cultural centres such as Sophiatown, leading to a decline in urban jazz scenes. According to Ballantine (1989: 308), this period saw “the forced removal of vibrant communities and the creation of new, under-resourced townships.” In response, renowned musicians such as Miriam Makeba and Hugh Masakela went into exile, and those who remained, adapted by creating styles like mbaqanga, which merged traditional African sounds with jazz and Western instrumentation – building on the foundation laid by Marabi’s cyclical and improvisational nature. The resulting genres became powerful expressions of cultural resilience. David Coplan (2001: 108) argues, “it is in the production of audiences that the political and social reality of art can be found,” noting that these musical forms were not merely entertainment but a reflection of urban struggles and aspirations.

At this time, music was intrinsically woven with politics. The United Democratic Front (UDF) rallies often featured performances by township jazz bands and choral groups, highlighting the connection between political resistance and cultural expression. New performance venues emerged despite state repression, showcasing innovative syncretic styles combining mbaqanga, jazz, and indigenous music.

Additionally, during this period, new media channels like the state-controlled South African Broadcasting Corporation (SABC) began to feature indigenous music. While these channels were part of an industrial infrastructure designed to reinforce state ideology, they inadvertently provided platforms that preserved and propagated local musical traditions. Simultaneously, independent labels such as Gallo became significant players, providing artists with recording opportunities. Venues in townships, though often modest, became incubators for cultural innovation and resistance.

The Post-Apartheid Era: Institutional Support and Digital Transformation

The democratic transition in 1994 ushered in an era of renewed hope and investment in the creative sectors. Recognising the economic potential of the creative industries, the post-apartheid government introduced policies to support the music sector. Government initiatives – led by the Department of Sport, Arts and Culture (DSAC) – have played a pivotal role in revitalising urban spaces through the promotion of cultural industries. DSAC’s Cultural and Creative Industries Development Programme, for instance, has supported the growth of music as a tool for urban regeneration and job creation. Further, DSAC, in partnership with organisations like the South African Music Rights Organisation (SAMRO) and Southern African Music Performance Rights Association (SAMPRA), worked to protect artists’ intellectual property rights and ensure fair compensation.

The establishment of the Music Industry Task Team in 2001 by former Minister of Arts, Culture, Science and Technology Dr. Ben Ngubane was a turning point, as it aimed to formalise the sector and address historical inequalities. Government-backed initiatives such as the Mzansi Golden Economy have provided funding for music festivals, artist development, and infrastructure projects.

At the same time, industry networks such as Concerts SA and the South African Music Promoters Association have emerged to professionalise live performances and enhance venue infrastructure. These networks have not only improved the urban cultural landscape but have also contributed significantly to the nation’s economic development. As one commentator noted in the Coplan (2001: 115) study, such initiatives represent “a confluence of artistic expression and modern industrial infrastructure” that is vital for sustaining cultural vibrancy.

The Kwaito Revolution: Music and Post-Apartheid Urban Identity

With the political transition of the 1990s, a new genre emerged that encapsulated the aspirations and frustrations of urban youth: Kwaito. Rooted in house music but incorporating local languages and township slang, Kwaito became the defining sound of post-apartheid South Africa. Groups like Trompies and TKZee gave voice to a generation navigating newfound freedoms and persistent socio-economic inequalities.

Kwaito’s rise was closely linked to the development of urban cultural infrastructure. The establishment of music television channels such as Channel O and MTV Base Africa provided platforms for local artists. Recording studios and performance spaces flourished in Johannesburg’s downtown and Soweto, reflecting the genre’s deep roots in township life.

From Kwaito to the Digital Age: Expanding the Musical Landscape

Although genres like Kwaito – which emerged in the early 1990s as a localised expression of urban life – played an important role in establishing South Africa’s post-apartheid musical identity, they are just one part of a broader tapestry. As Sharlene Swartz (2003:4) explains, Kwaito is “a spectacular vernacular” that reflects the aspirations of Black youth; yet, South African music also includes a rich diversity of styles from Mbaqanga and Jazz to contemporary urban genres.

In the 2000s and beyond, digital technologies have revolutionised the music industry. The rise of high-speed internet, digital recording studios, and social media platforms has allowed local artists to bypass traditional recording infrastructures. This digital transformation has enabled genres ranging from South African Hip-Hop to Amapiano to flourish on a global scale. Major urban centres such as Johannesburg and Cape Town have become hubs where state-of-the-art venues and creative networks merge with centuries-old traditions to create an ever-evolving soundscape.

Music as an Agent of Urban Transformation

South Africa’s music is a dynamic mirror of its urban development and industrial evolution. From the early fusion of indigenous and European musical traditions to the modern digital transformation that supports global distribution, the nation’s musical journey has been deeply influenced by shifts in industrial infrastructure and urban policy. As Ballantine (1989: 306) concludes, “the unexpected arrival of South African popular music on the international stage is a testament to its creative fusion and resilience.” Meanwhile, Coplan (2001) reminds us that the true power of music lies in its ability to produce and sustain audiences – turning cultural expression into a driver of economic and social change.

As South Africa moves forward, the challenge remains to create sustainable ecosystems that support local artists while fostering global connections. If history is any indication, the country’s musicians will continue to innovate, using sound as a powerful tool for social transformation.

References

• Ballantine, C. 1989. A Brief History of South African Popular Music. Popular Music, 8(3): 305-310. Retrieved from JSTOR.
• Coplan, D. B. 2001. Sounds of the "Third Way": Identity and the African Renaissance in Contemporary South African Popular Traditional Music. Black Music Research Journal, 21(1), 107-124. Retrieved from JSTOR.
• Swartz, S. G. 2003. Is Kwaito South African Hip-hop? Why the Answer Matters and Who It Matters To. World of Music, 1(1), 1-21. Retrieved from ResearchGate.